For some, motivating the middle schooler may seem like an oxymoron. Although it is true, that research has shown a decline in motivation and performance for many students as they move from elementary to middle school, studies are now showing that this motivational change may well depend on the characteristics of the learning environment where these kids find themselves, rather than on psychological or physiological changes of the students themselves (Midgley, 51993). And, exactly what does this mean? Well, it means as middle school educators we can do something! Do something to move our students to act, to focus, to persist on the academic objectives we set for them!

One motivational theory that has particular relevance for middle school teachers is Attribution Theory. Students' perceptions of their educational experiences generally influence their motivation more than the actual reality of those experiences. If a student is generally successful in a given area, it is assumed that s/he will persist in that area (Weiner, l985). However, students' beliefs about the reasons for their success will determine the accuracy of this statement. If students believe that their success results from inherited intellect, there will be no reason for persistence. If students believe that their success results from the fact that the task was "just an easy one" or that "I'm just in in the midst of a lucky streak," persistence is irrelevant.

Students' attributions for failure are also important influences on motivation. When kids have a history of failure in school, it is not easy to sustain motivation to keep trying. Students who believe this failure results from factors beyond their control (inherited ability, task difficulty, luck) are hardly likely to see any hope for improvement. But, if students see their lack of success due to poor study habits or lack of important skills that can be learned, they are more likely to put forth some effort in the future.

These findings have some important implications for teachers. Teachers can unknowingly communicate a range of attitudes about whether ability in school is fixed or changeable. It is important that we make every effort to help students see that their successes or failures are very much under their own control. One way to accomplish this, is in the way we give feedback to students---explicit feedback that links their successes, or lack of successes, to variables which they control: "That problem solving strategy we learned really contributed to the success of your project," or, "So many of you had difficulty with the test this time. Let's spend some time on test-talking strategies that will help you," will do a lot towards changing kids perceptions about the causes of their successes and failures. And, new perceptions will change their willingness to put forth effort.

Goal Theory is another area of motivation that is of particular interest to middle school educators. Students have different reasons or purposes for achieving. There are two main goal orientations that are discussed in the writ ùings on motivation (Midgley,1993). Students with a task goal orientation believe that the purpose of achieving is personal improvement and understanding. They focus on their own progress in mastering skills and knowledge. They define success in those terms. Students with an ability goal orientation focus on appearing competent, usually in comparison to others, and they define success accordingly. Students with a task goal orientation generally use more effective cognitive strategies. They seek help more readily, are more willing to engage in difficult or challenging tasks, and they have more positive feelings about school and themselves as learners.

Can teachers influence the goal orientation of students? Absolutely. Some suggestions are:

1. Group students by topic, interest, and student choice rather than by ability.

2. Use cooperative rather than competitive learning.

3. Use test data for diagnosis rather than as a basis for comparison. Use assessments other than tests such as portfolios, rubrics and projects.

4. Grade for progress or improvement and involve students in self-assessment, rather than relying on normative grading and public display of grades. In teaching to standards, have students monitor their own progress and have input into planning the steps they need to take and the strategies they must learn to meet them.

5. Recognize progress improvement and emphasize learning for its own sake. Avoid, as much as possible, recognition for relative performance, honor rolls for high grades, and over-use of praise.

6. Provide opportunities for choice and student decision-making, self-scheduling and self- regulation.

7. Encourage students to take academic risks, view mistakes as part of learning and allow students to redo work.

8. Provide challenging, complex work to students, give homework that is enriching, and encourage problem solving and comprehension. Move away from rote learning and memorization and an over-use of textbooks and worksheets.

A third motivational theory that impacts middle school teachers is Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Students have three categories of needs: a sense of competence, relatedness to others, and autonomy. Most of the research in self-determination focuses on autonomy, which involves initiating and regulating one's own actions. Autonomy needs can be met in the classroom through some student choice and input on class decision-making. Middle school students have increased cognitive abilities and a developing sense of identify so a sense of autonomy is especially important. They want---and need---to be included in decision-making and to have some sense of control over their activities. Unfortunately, they often experience fewer opportunities for self-determination than they did in elementary school (Midgley & Feldlaufer, l987)!

Providing students some choice over what types of tasks to engage in and how much time to allot to each give students feelings of self-determination. Extrinsic rewards, imposition of deadlines, and an emphasis on evaluations detract from feelings of self-determination and lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation. Supporting student autonomy does not mean turning the class over to the students. Small opportunities for choice, or choices within limits, go a long way towards meeting student needs for autonomy. They can work with a partner or work alone; they can do the first 20 or the last 20 problems on the page; they can do a written or an oral report on the Civil War; they can take notes in outline or graphic organizer form. It is quite true that students' first attempts at self-regulation may not prove successful. Good decision-making and time management require instruction and practice. Teachers can be of great assistance by teaching their students strategies for "working smarter, not harder," by breaking down large tasks into manageable pieces, and by providing guidelines for students to use as they monitor their own practice. This is as much a part of the middle school curriculum as the content areas we teach.

Motivation, or lack thereof, is often of tremendous concern to middle school teachers. So is discipline. But, many discipline problems spring from motivational problems rather than the other way around. Promoting increased motivation for middle schoolers can be the equivalent of winning the daily double for both students and their teachers!

References:

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). INTRINSIC MOTIVATION AND SELF DETERMINATION IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. U., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST

Maehr, M. L., & Midgley, C. (1991). Enhancing student motivation: A schoolwide approach. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST.

Midgley, C., & Feldlaufer, H. (1987). Students' and teachers' decision-making fit before and after the transition to junior high school. JOURNAL OF EARLY ADOLESCENCE

Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW, 92(4), 548-573. EJ 324 684